Appalachian Poverty Essay - 2466 Words

Appalachian Poverty Poverty is a global problem, and it has existed from the beginning of civilization. Hunger, homelessness, and lack of health care are major aspects of this world-wide dilemma. Many countries are in complete poverty and a majority are third-world countries. Within the United States of America, a land of plenty, there are also pockets of extreme poverty. Governments around the world are trying to solve this huge problem. Third world poverty and Appalachian poverty, which occurred in the United States of America, have developed for various reasons, and these situations have led to a great deal of problems. Throughout the world, poverty has plagued all countries. In smaller, under-developed countries many†¦show more content†¦Granted, American poverty is no match to third world poverty, but for such a prosperous country it is pretty sad. Most third world countries do not have social security or welfare (650a). So, the people of those countries have no income to keep themselves going. Even though America does have both social security and welfare, this country still has many homeless and starving people. Horten 3 Appalachia includes thirteen states, ranging from southern New York to eastern Mississippi (650a). About eighteen million people live in Appalachia. In March, 1965, the United States Congress passed the Appalachian Regional Redevelopment Act. The legislation was designed primarily to create more jobs by attracting tourists and industries. It provided funds and made the area more accessible. Funds also were made available for new schools and health facilities, land and mine reclamation, and timber and water conservation. The poverty in America will not be solved all at once (650a). Simply creating jobs will not help eliminate poverty because there are some people who are disabled and just can not work (650a). The government social welfare programs help to add income to many people (650a). These people could be the retired, unemployed, disabled, or widowed (650a). In order to help the less fortunate, the people that are employed are taxed to raise money to pay for social security andShow MoreRelatedEssay about Appalachia Culture1522 Words   |  7 Pagesthe land of severe poverty that it was three decades ago, now the poverty rate of one in 15 is close to the national average. The number of adults who have received a high school diploma has also jumped from one out of three to two out of three; and the infant death rate has been cut in half. Comparing the 391 counties in the Appalachian Regional Commission with counties outside the region that were similar to Appalachian counties in the 1960s, researchers found that Appalachian counties grew significantlyRead MoreESPM 50AC Final Paper1366 Words   |  6 PagesIntroduction Appalachia is a 205,000-square-mile region that follows the spine of the Appalachian Mountains stretching from southern New York to northern Mississippi. It is home to more than 25 million people. Appalachia Mountains are rich in natural resources, containing an abundant number of coal, timber, oil, gas, and water (Daugneaux 1981). These natural resources have historically influenced the economic characteristics of the region. The regions economy has been highly dependent on miningRead MoreInfluencing The Lives Of Non Human Animals1381 Words   |  6 Pagesappreciable advancement in society. The interactions that occur between people and non-human animals, particularly in the Appalachian region, has led to profound changes both on the local community and the nation. The most significant interaction to take place and has influenced the area drastically is domestication. Four types of domestication at the forefront of Appalachian culture are livestock, blood-sports, pet keeping, and animal’s prevalence in oral folklore. The introduction of domesticationRead MoreThe Factors Influencing Human Behaviour Outside Of Other Non Human Animals1373 Words   |  6 Pagesbehavior o utside of other non-human animals. The interactions that occur between people and non-human animals, particularly in the Appalachian region, has led to profound changes both on the local community. The most significant interaction to take place and has influenced the area drastically is domestication. Four types of domestication at the forefront of Appalachian culture are livestock, blood-sports, pet keeping, and animal’s prevalence in oral folklore. The introduction of domestication previousRead MoreEssay On Medicaid924 Words   |  4 Pagesto live in a rural Appalachian area and are more likely to be dependent on Medicaid insurance. West Virginia is the state with the highest percentage of its population to use Medicaid. While having more of the population insured is a positive outcome, many are still not receiving the preventative benefits that would increase their overall health and life expectancy. The income and insurance coverage disparity continues to reflect the p oor health outcomes for the Appalachian area. (Foundation, 2017)Read MoreThe Appalachian Region Of New York1390 Words   |  6 PagesIntroduction The Appalachian Region stretches from the northern part of New York, through Pennsylvanyia, all of West Virginia, the West side of Kentucky, Mississippi, and the southern parts of Maryland, S.Carolina, N. Carolina, and Alabama. The immigrants who settled in the Appalachian Region were made-up of three main ethinic backgrounds; Scot-Irish, English, and German. â€Å"Appalachian people are considered a separate culture, made up of many unique backgrounds—Native Americans, Irish, English andRead MoreMental Health Problems Of The Appalachian Mountain Region1981 Words   |  8 Pagesthroughout their life. Experiences are dictated by the people you live with, the events that occur in your life, and where you grow up. The Appalachian mountain region has been considered to be a different world from mainstream America since the first settlers arrived from the borderlands of Scotland, Ireland, and England. Several scholars have examined the Appalachian region to assess behavior due t o mental health issues. Several studies have found that a higher number of adults in Appalachia report majorRead MoreIdentifying An At Risk Population1736 Words   |  7 PagesAppalachia is the geographic area adjacent to the Appalachian mountain chain in the US and includes 410 counties in 13 states (Appalachian Regional Commission, 2011). The central portion of Appalachia contains the economically strapped coal counties of West Virginia, Kentucky, Tennessee and Virginia. The people of rural Appalachia have long been affected by income and poor education, but now those issues have created greater problems. According to the Appalachian Regional Commission, the unemployment rateRead MoreGod Was Wrong, Support Mountaintop Removal1272 Words   |  6 Pages God Was Wrong, Support Mountaintop Removal Coal in the United States has long been the #1 producer of energy. Massive seams of coal are found in the Appalachian Mountains, and our reliance on this fossil fuel has meant devastation for many mountain residents and over 500 mountains. As our society advances, the need for more energy advances. What were once beautiful rolling hills are now flattened plateaus reminiscent of a landscape you would see in the desert. We as a nation have only short-termRead MoreMy Statement For Pursue Nursing As A Profession Essay1645 Words   |  7 Pagesall different backgrounds and that is why I am most interested in nursing. I have served on two different mission trips while in high school: one in the inner city of Atlanta and one in the Appalachian mountain range of Kentucky. Even though these trips were in two different parts of the United States, the poverty level I saw was very similar. What draws me into nursing is being able to further care for these people who quiet frankly do not hav e the resources to care for themselves. It is heartwarming

Estuarine Pollution in Eutrophicatin - 972 Words

Rivers and estuaries have been useful to human beings more than just as a water source. They have been the centre of interest of frontier settlement, which leads to more human activities and wastes, which leads to dumping rubbish into the most convenient place - the waterways. What becomes a problem is that more and more toxic chemicals are being dumped to a point that the waterways could no longer filter it. One of the problems that is becoming a global crisis is eutrophication. Therefore, this paper will be talking about the estuarine pollution, specifically on eutrophication, starting with the source and type of the pollutants, how it affects the estuaries and the management of the pollution. Eutrophication happens as the water ecosystem becomes more productive due to increasing primary productivity in the estuary. This happens because of the excessive nutrient enrichment which will cause frequent cyanobacteria blooms (Wang and Wang, 2009). The excess nutrients could come from different sources, including stormwater drainage, waste discharges from industrial areas, and runoffs from agricultural farm. According to United States Environmental Protection Agency, the stormwater can pick up debris and chemicals straight from the streets into the rivers and estuaries. Consequently, it also drags the excess nutrients when it is discharged from the storm sewer system. Not only that, the stormwater can also drag nutrients and pathogens form leaking and poorly maintained septic

STEMM Learning and Career Orientation - MyAssignmenthelp.com

Question: Discuss about the STEMM Learning and Career Orientation. Answer: Introduction: The number of women in STEMM fields such as science, technology, engineering, medicine, and mathematics remain underrepresented in the diverse fields. Over time, there have been fewer women in the fields that were dominated by men. The fields were perceived o be a preserve for males despite the growing numbers of women drawing their minds in the endeavors. Despite of the growing number of women in the field, there continues to exist a problem causing significant delay in their pick up to the STEMM subjects. The society is responsible towards the formation of culture and the gender role separation through perception. Popular culture plays a critical role through the way it represents different genders in the mainstream media. The reality of girls growing up while experiencing and watching powerful position such as doctors and neurosurgeons on television promotes a stereotype that raises the notion of the careers as male-oriented (Be, Henriksen, Lyons, and Schreiner 2011). Therefore, it is evident that the popular media plays a critical role towards the formation of culture in the society. Individuals who continue to watch the same and perceive it as right risk losing the focus towards elevating girls to the highest levels. Besides, teasing affects the ability of women participation in the STEMM subjects .As children grow in school the notion a male child is given when taking courses perceived to be weak and leaving one of the STEMM aside leads to a lot of ridicule which aligns male children to the difficult courses while women preferring the weaker subjects offered in the societys perceived subjects. Eventually, it becomes difficult for individuals to adjust in future thereby remaining in the subjects where comfort was viable compared to the ridicule one would get (Byars?Winston 2014). Consequently, the kind of reactions given tends to form the future career of individuals. The few that succeed to overcome the effects of ridicule manage to pursue the courses leading to successful enrolment into the STEMM careers. Children, irrespective of their gender need to be encouraged towards pursuing their career of choice. No amount of intimidation is supposed to prevent them from achieving their dreams. However, the lack of encouragement coming from parents more so, on the girl child leads to lack of interest forcing the children to pursue courses according to the perceptions of the society (Whalen and Shelley II, 2010). The situation leads to the formation and reality of few women in the STEMM courses based on what the society allowed through the popular media thus resulting into the scenario observed in the present society (Sadler, Sonnert, Hazari, and Tai 2012). With encouragement, children can perform and overcome the formations of the society with ease. On the other hand, the existent stereotypes in the society that drive the perception of inequality between the abilities of men and women results into the case of fewer women in the STEMM courses and eventually in their respective careers. The unconscious beliefs and biases on the girl child tend to become powerful than the opposite thought on the potential of women in these subjects (Nugent, Barker, Welch, Grandgenett, Wu,and Nelson 2015). The strong beliefs on the negative stereotype tend to contribute immensely to the case where individuals fail to follow their dreams but rather opt to abide by the societys perception on the reality. Such issues lead to the poor situation which leads to a selective judgment that impedes women from achieving their dreams. Besides, the lack of mentorship on the part of women is responsible for the low numbers of women in the respective subjects and subsequent careers. Children, right from the tender age need to be mentored by their respective women that have succeeded previously to become participants and professionals in the STEMM related subjects (Morgan, Isaac, and Sansone 2001). In such a scenario, the ability and presence of such mentors to speak to the girl child on their potential leads to their empowerment which results in subsequent success and enrollment into the male perceived subjects. Therefore, the situation is responsible for the menace experienced owing to the poor culture and lack of sufficient mentors to see the girl child towards success through participation. Moreover, the lack of commitment by the government in promoting the true nature of truth by allowing women into the STEMM courses during enrollment leads to the disparity experienced in the present times. The government through the department of education needs to motivate individuals towards equal education and expressing the fact that women can perform equally and even more than the boys. It is deceiving to give one gender an upper hand despite the truth experienced from the few women working in the public and private sector (Jerrim and Schoon 2014). In this case, the government fails to largely advocate for women towards promotion of their affairs and in initiating a balance in the thoughts and perceptions of the ability of individuals in the society. The government and authorities in the education department can be held liable for the same. In other instances, the recruitment and selection processes of organizations lead to the growth in perception of the case. The biased cases in recruitment where men are taken in large numbers as opposed to the case of women create the societal notion of the lack of acceptability thus leading to a discouraged lot of women (Leslie, Cimpian, Meyerand Freeland 2015). Recruitment processes need to be transparent and set a considerable amount of slots to be filled by women. By so doing, the society would go slow on the perception that women cannot outshine or work equally with their counterparts in the STEMM subjects and subsequent careers (Henriksen, Dillon and Ryder 2015). The lack of commitment from the recruiting authorities to change the perception remains a let back to the realization of matching numbers in the STEMM related careers and courses. Men need to be encouraged to perceive the non-STEMM courses to allow for their inclusivity to leave some of the chances available for women. The lack of energy to stimulate the same by the educators and parents leads to the growth of cultural perception on the ability of women (Freeman, Marginson and Tytler 2015). In this respect, it becomes difficult to create the notion that all courses and careers existent can be carried out by both gender thereby drawing the possibility of a balanced participation in courses and their subsequent careers (Eccles and Wang 2016). The presently working women workforce in the perceived difficult subjects have managed to perform tremendously thus raising the possibility of a cultural change. Therefore, the lack of encouragement and willingness to promote inclusivity in the diverse sectors of the economy gives room to the bias. The media plays a crucial role in promoting the status quo surrounding the situation. The media fails to impact the positive image by highlighting the presence of women in the careers sufficiently. The situation leaves a considerable number of individuals with the lack of information that would cause a positive influence to their careers. The failure leads to the present numbers that illustrate lack of commitment from the concerned individuals (Diekman, Weisgram, and Belanger 2015). The situation is saddening despite the recent changes that to some extents express their commitment through the girl child programs to encourage both genders on exchanging the careers towards posterity. Lack of support and willingness to the feminism actions by both women and men leads to the un-matching numbers of individuals in the courses and respective careers. Women, through several advocacy groups tend to promote the positive agenda of empowerment (Diekman, Brown, Johnston, and Clark 2010). However, their efforts are met with resistance in some nations due to the already created images that impede growth in the sector. Consequently, the lack of commitment by the concerned parties leads to the poor state where women tend to remain in the careers with less pressure and ridicule from their counterparts. The continuous discouragement leads to change in attitude and dedication levels thus limiting the ability to pursue own careers. On the other hand, the levels of harassment on women in the career from the male dominated professions tend to act as a discouraging factor to the existence of a peaceful growth in the numbers of women in the subjects and careers . Sexual harassment remains a common issue in the careers where the male professionals to some extent harass their counterparts on sexual lines (Clark Blickenstaff 2005). Consequently, due to their low numbers, women find themselves vulnerable and in worse case leads to discouragement which amounts into an exit in a career in the STEMM division. All the hard work to achieve the career goes into a waste as individuals move to the careers that drive utmost comfort in them. The cases present the effects of negative bias on women where the strength and ability of the boy child are glorified far beyond those of the girl child. The results discourage the development in education and career of women as everyone makes shape of the societys created perceptions. The results to the case indicate a negative energy even to those that grew their resilience and energy to pursue the male-dominated careers. The results indicate the lack of mentorship and willingness by the educators and employers to gather their efforts towards promoting the women in STEMM careers. The situation calls for a necessary adjustment to the case to allow for a positive development and steady growth in the number of women participation in the STEMM courses and their respective careers. Education is a necessary path towards success and empowerment of individuals regardless of their gender. Reference List Be, M.V., Henriksen, E.K., Lyons, T. and Schreiner, C., 2011. Participation in science and technology: young peoples achievement?related choices in late?modern societies.Studies in Science Education,47(1), pp.37-72. Byars?Winston, A., 2014. Toward a Framework for Multicultural STEM?Focused Career Interventions.The Career development quarterly,62(4), pp.340-357. Clark Blickenstaff*, J., 2005. Women and science careers: leaky pipeline or gender filter?.Gender and education,17(4), pp.369-386. Diekman, A.B., Brown, E.R., Johnston, A.M. and Clark, E.K., 2010. Seeking congruity between goals and roles: A new look at why women opt out of science, technology, engineering, and mathematics careers.Psychological Science,21(8), pp.1051-1057. Diekman, A.B., Weisgram, E.S. and Belanger, A.L., 2015. New routes to recruiting and retaining women in STEMM: Policy implications of a communal goal congruity perspective.Social Issues and Policy Review,9(1), pp.52-88. Eccles, J.S. and Wang, M.T., 2016. What motivates females and males to pursue careers in mathematics and science?.International Journal of Behavioral Development,40(2), pp.100-106. Freeman, B., Marginson, S. and Tytler, R., 2015. Widening and deepening the STEMM effect.The Age of STEM: Educational Policy and Practice Across the World in Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics, pp.1-21. Henriksen, E.K., Dillon, J. and Ryder, J. eds., 2015.Understanding student participation and choice in science and technology education. Dordrecht, the Netherlands: Springer. Jerrim, J. and Schoon, I., 2014. Do teenagers want to become scientists? A comparison of gender differences in attitudes toward science, career expectations, and academic skills across 29 countries.Gender differences in aspirations and attainment: A life course perspective, pp.203-223. Leslie, S.J., Cimpian, A., Meyer, M. and Freeland, E., 2015. Expectations of brilliance underlie gender distributions across academic disciplines.Science,347(6219), pp.262-265. Morgan, C., Isaac, J.D. and Sansone, C., 2001. The role of interest in understanding the career choices of female and male college students.Sex Roles,44(5), pp.295-320. Nugent, G., Barker, B., Welch, G., Grandgenett, N., Wu, C. and Nelson, C., 2015. A model of factors contributing to STEMM learning and career orientation.International Journal of Science Education,37(7), pp.1067-1088. Sadler, P.M., Sonnert, G., Hazari, Z. and Tai, R., 2012. Stability and volatility of STEMM career interest in high school: A gender study.Science Education,96(3), pp.411-427. Whalen, D.F. and Shelley II, M.C., 2010. Academic success for STEMM and non-STEMM majors.Journal of STEMM Education: Innovations and research,11(1/2), p.45.

Review the Impact That Selected Theories of Management and Leadership Have on Organisational Strategy Essay Example

Review the Impact That Selected Theories of Management and Leadership Have on Organisational Strategy Essay [pic] EDEXCEL BTEC LEVEL 7 CERTIFICATE In STRATEGIC MANAGEMENT AND LEADERSHIP DEVELOPING STRATEGIC MANAGEMENT AND LEADERSHIP SKILLS Tutor Marked Assignment TMA 02 Samantha Haran IN PARTNERSHIP WITH TEESSIDE UNIVERSITY TMA 02 Leadership Strategy and Planning for Leadership Table of Contents Executive summary Overview: There are three objectives of this assignment: 1. To identify the key strategic management and leadership drivers for an organisation of your choice over the next three years; 2. To apply knowledge of management and leadership theory when creating a leadership strategy for your organisation; 3. To plan for the recruitment and future development of a specific leadership role. TMA 02: Instructions †¢ There are two tasks to complete: Task 1: Leadership Strategy Report format (2000 words excluding appendices) Using an organisation of your choice, write a report for the executive team on what you consider to be the key strategic management and leadership drivers for the next three years. In your report you should identify and justify what you consider to be the most important area of strategic policy and how this could be implemented. You must apply your knowledge of current thinking by recommending three management and leadership theories for consideration in the proposed implementation process. Task 1: Guidance (Assessment criteria AC 2. 1, 2. 2, 3. 1 3. 2) i) You should start by choosing an organisation for the focus of your research. i) By considering the major political, economic and social factors relating to the business context, you are required to identify the key strategic drivers for the organisation over a period of three years from the publication date of the assignment. (AC 3. 1) iii) The outcome of this initial research should lead to a summary of the strategic management and leadership implications for the organisation and its leaders. (AC 3. 2) iv) You should extend this report by identifying and justifying what you consider to be the most important area for strategic policy implementation in the given timescale. AC 2. 2) v) Once this is completed, you will need to conduct a theoretical review of management and leadership theories and, based on current thinking, apply three theories to assist the implementation of the nominated strategic policy. (AC 2. 1) Task 2: Plan (1000 words excluding appendices) Produce a plan for the recruitment and future development for a senior manager who will lead the implementation of a key strategic policy over a timescale of three years. We will write a custom essay sample on Review the Impact That Selected Theories of Management and Leadership Have on Organisational Strategy specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Review the Impact That Selected Theories of Management and Leadership Have on Organisational Strategy specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Review the Impact That Selected Theories of Management and Leadership Have on Organisational Strategy specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer Task 2 Guidance (Assessment criteria AC 3. 2, 4. 1 4. 2) Please familiarise yourself with the criteria below which will be used to assess your work on this assignment. This is a planning document and although standard presentation conventions associated with this type of document should be applied, creative planning formats are encouraged. Guidance on assignment presentation, structure, English usage and referencing can be sourced in the 2010/11 course handbook which is available on Blackboard. ) You should start by using the organisation selected for Task 1 ii) Plan for the recruitment of a strategic manager to lead the strategic policy you nominated for Task 1. Ignoring salary and conditions of employment, concentrate on producing a relevant job description, and person specification. (AC 3. 2 4. 1) iii) To ensure successful implementation of the strategic policy, identify and justify a range of suitable (leadership-based) professional development activities for this senior manage r. This plan should extend over three years. AC 4. 2) Ethical Considerations If you draw on the practice of others in your organisation, you must gain their written permission to do so. When researching and writing this report you are required to treat all your information as confidential. Using course guidelines on ethical conduct for research, you are requested not to identify the name of the organisations in your work or anyone you have permission to work with. EDEXCEL Assignment Criteria On successful completion of this assignment, you will meet the following criteria: Outcomes |Assessment criteria for pass | | | | | |To achieve each outcome a learner must demonstrate the ability to: | |2. Be able to apply management and leadership |2. 1 Review the impact that selected | |theory to support organisational direction. theories of management and | | |leadership have on organisational | | |strategy. | | | | | |2. 2 Create a leadership strategy that | | |supports organisational dire ction | |3. Be able to assess leadership requirements. |Use appropriate methods to review current leadership requirements. | | | | | |Plan for the development of future situations requiring leadership. | | 4. Be able to plan the development of leadership|4. 1 Plan the development of leadership | |skills. |skills for a specific requirement. | | | | |4. 2 Report on the usefulness of methods | | |used to plan the development of | | |leadership skills. | | | |

Ellsworth Huntington essays

Ellsworth Huntington essays Ellsworth Huntington was a geographer who studied human behavior. He began notice that people within the northern hemisphere where working harder than the people in the southern hemisphere. This when he began to first conceive a theory, which stated that any one who lived in the southern half of the world was genetically unable to work as hard as the people who live din the north. This theory was called environmental determinism. This theory has since been disproved however. This is due to the realization that the working conditions where less desirable in the south than the north. Ever since air conditioners and other things that help increase stamina and productivity have been invented, work is the south has increased dramatically so that it is if not equal, it is more productive ...

UN Security Council and World Order

UN Security Council and World Order Introduction After the world wars I and II, many leaders of the world saw the need of putting in place proper laws and institutions to govern the world in a manner that would make it very difficult for another world war to happen.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on UN Security Council and World Order specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More One of the key steps towards this direction was the establishment and strengthening of the United Nations, so that it could have the power and means of maintaining law and order in the world. This assignment is a discussion of how and why the United Nations, through the United Nations Security Council has been attempting to manage world order and why and how it has been unsuccessful. Discussion The term world order or new world order as its popularly known as, is used to refer to a bureaucratic system of governance of the world which advocates for global governance in disregard to traditiona l State sovereignty which advocates for national governance (Slaughter, 2005). The term has its history from what was referred to as â€Å"illuminati† which was the movement responsible for the French revolution as well as revolutions in Europe (Stauffer Williamson, 2005). Recently, new world order has taken the form of institutions which have global influence, appeal and presence like the United Nations and its affiliated institutions as well as the so called Breton wood institutions (Balogun, 2011). One of the key UN affiliated institutions which has been trying to propagate and manage the idea of world order is the United Nations Security Council, which is concerned with global security. The UN, through the UN Security Council has been in the fore front in attempts to have a world which is centralized in terms of governance, administration, justice as well as in terms of trade. The main idea behind the centralization of world’s governance is that such a world would be safer to live in, especially after the September 11 terror attacks on the United States. It is worth mentioning that the United States actually controls the Un Security Council due to its veto power. In fact, many international relations analysts have argued that there is actually no difference between the United States and the UN Security Council. A good example to illustrate this scenario is the US led invasion on Iraq in 2003, in which the Security Council was unable to prevent the US from doing the invasion, despite the fact that there were no enough justifications for the invasion.Advertising Looking for essay on international relations? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More In its attempts to manage word order, the UN Security Council has been employing the strategy of carrot and a stick, in which countries of the world, especially the developing ones are given aid with strings attached. In some situations, they are required to relinquish part of their sovereignty to international bodies like the international criminal court and several other international treaties and conventions. Those counties which fail to comply are not only slapped with economic sanctions, but also military actions as well. Why the UN Security Council attempts have been unsuccessful The initial intention of establishing and maintaining world order was good. But due to the politics of domination between the rich and the poor nations of the world, the idea has been faced with enormous challenges, which have made the UN Security Council strain without much success in the management of word order. It seems that there has been a growing resistance to the new world order which attempts to concentrate resources and power around the ruling elite and the bureaucrats at the expense of the common persons or citizens commonly referred by Karl max as the have nots (Milanović, 2010). For instance, the recent uprisings in Arabic countries like Egypt, Libya and Tunisia were seen by many as an indication of civilian unrest and discontedment with the status of affairs in many countries which tend to pursue, propagate or support the ideology of a new world order. The unrest in these countries led to the ousting of the ruling bureaucrats, who had taken the advantage of the capitalist ideology to propagate inequality, lack of fairness and equity between various segments of the society which exists in form of social classes, with the upper social class enjoying the benefits of capitalism in form of surplus, as the low social class suffer from poverty, unemployment and lack of basic social amenities (Milanović, 2010). There have also been grassroots movements in form of civil society organizations which are formed by countries’ non-governmental sector. These civil society organizations have been working in a coordinated manner to push governments of countries to respect human rights, provide health care and education to the citizens. The idea behind the formation of civil society organizations is to empower the common citizens with information about their rights and the responsibilities of governments (Barlow, 2003) The universal declarations of human rights agitates for the universal respect of human rights, civil liberties and freedoms like the freedom of worship, movement and expression. These rights and civil liberties advocated for by the civil society have the potential of affecting the stability of the new world order, especially in the fight against terrorism, which is thought to succeed under the limitation of some of the civil liberties and political rights as stipulated in the United States Patriotic Act enacted after the terrorist attacks of United States in 2001 (Abele, 2005).Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on UN Security Council and World Order specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The international crimina l system of justice is intended to curb impunity and the violation of basic fundamental rights and freedoms of citizens. It is aimed at detaining and punishing leaders who violate the rights of their citizens. This has happened especially for countries like Rwanda, Yugoslavia among others. However, the court has been explained by many critics as being characterized by double standards between the rich and poor nations. The impact of the international court system on security is that many countries of the world are improving their political systems to become more democratic instead of dictatorial or authoritative. This to some extend has led to increased freedom of expression of citizens which in a way has reduced the grip of the rich nations on the power to control and manipulate the resources of the world. Economically, the grassroots movements have been able to lobby for increased opportunities for countries to do business with each other. The movements have also been very instrum ental in pushing governments to offer business opportunities and provide friendly loaning facilities to citizens. The world trade organization has been in the fore front in lobbying for increased interaction between nations in terms of doing business. It has also been working closely with individual governments to stream line their loaning facilities to be more friendly and accessible to many citizens (Barlow, 2003). The World Bank and the IMF have been working hand in hand with the world trade organization to offer financial support to the developing countries to fight poverty and disease, like Hiv/Aids and malaria. These institutions have empowered many poor countries to boost their levels of education, health care and overall, their economies. The economies of the poor countries have been improving from time to time, thereby reducing their dependency on the rich countries. This has been compromising the establishment of a new world order because the number of countries which may be manipulated for the gain of the rich countries is declining. Technologically, the grassroots movements and institutions have been working hand in hand with governments to be more open to technology transfer. Many countries of the world are now adopting the use of technology, especially the information communication technology like the use of the electronic mail, the use of the mobile phone networks as well as the use of electronic money transfer systems like wire transfer, money bookers, western union, PayPal among others (Chorafas, 1988).Advertising Looking for essay on international relations? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More The use of information communication technology and the internet has enabled people to improve the way in which they communicate to each other in many sectors. In the trade sector, many people have been able to do business in various countries due to improved use of information and financial technology. Doing trade and business nowadays has become more efficient and convenient than ever, which has been advantageous to the economies of the poor or developing countries. In the education sector, information technology has opened up more opportunities for people to do research and improve their academic qualifications in a friendly, convenient and efficient manner. This has led to increased literacy levels in many countries, which has got a positive impact on the economy of many countries because many people are able to understand the nature of business transactions and how to undertake business in a sustainable manner. This has consequently worked against the establishment of the new w orld order in which the rich states are able to consolidate resources and opportunities at the expense of the poor countries. At the global level, the advancement in technology has been a growing concern especially the advancement of nuclear energy. Some emerging economies in Asia and Middle East are increasingly embracing nuclear technology as an alternative to the use of coal, crude oil and natural gas as sources of energy. The use of nuclear energy is presumed to be environmental friendly and to possess the ability to generate massive energy to power the growth of economies of countries of the world. However, the use of nuclear technology has been a growing concern to the United States especially in regard to the issue of misuse of nuclear technology. The fear is that nations like North Korea, Iran and Syria which are perceived as having a hidden agenda in their nuclear programs and described by the previous US president George W. Bush as â€Å"axis of evil† may use their nuclear technology to harm the United States, its allies and the world in general. Nuclear energy may lead to nuclear terrorism. It may also have serious negative implications on the environment especially in regard to the disposal of nuclear waste if not properly managed. All these nuclear related issues are perceived as working against the establishment and strengthening of the new world order in which the elite concentrate the possession of technology and even the energy used for boosting economic productivity in countries of the world. If the poor, emerging or developing economies are allowed to pursue nuclear energy, they will not only act as potential terrorist threats but would also act as serious competitors of the advanced economies like the United States and members of the European Union and the establishment of the new world order as well. Conclusion Throughout the discussion in this assignment, what has emerged is that the powerful States have been attempting, through th e United Nations Security Council to establish a bureaucratic arrangement of world’s governance in which the elite would be controlling world’s resources and power. The main idea behind this has been to ensure that the super powers maintain the status quo in terms of world’s politics, economy, culture and technology through the propagation of their ideologies and influence to the less powerful nations of the world. However, there has been a lot of challenges in establishing the new world order, which have to some extend compromised the economic, political, cultural and technological security of the rich nations. The discussion may be summed up as a competition between the bureaucrats and the common person, whom, through the assistance of grassroots movements and institutions has been empowered to rise up and challenge the exploitations and discriminations which comes with the establishment of a new world order. The United Nations Security Council has also been h indered by the presence of many non-governmental organizations, which work in partnership with governments of the developing world to empower the citizens with education, which is a very important tool in fighting the rich nation’s imperialism. Education has enabled many countries in the developing world to embark on research, especially on agriculture and technology, which has enabled them to become self-reliant in terms of food and technological advancement. This has denied the rich nations, through the UN Security Council an opportunity to propagate the idea of world order, especially through giving aid to these countries, with some strings attached. Reference List Abele, R.P.(2005). â€Å"A Users Guide to the USA Patriot Act and Beyond†. Oxford OX2 6DP: University Press of America. Balogun, M.J. (2011). Hegemony and Sovereign Equality: The Interest Contiguity Theory in International Relations. Oxford OX4 2DQ: Springer. Barlow, A.L. (2003). Between Fear and Hope: Gl obalization and Race in the United States. Lanham, MD: Rowman Littlefield. Chorafas, D.N. (1988). Electronic Funds Transfer. Wellington Square: Butterworths. Milanović, B.(2010). The Haves and the Have-Nots: A Brief and Idiosyncratic History of Global Inequality. Oxford OX2 6DP: Basic Books. Slaughter, A.M. (2005). A New World Order. Woodstock OX20 1TW: Princeton University Press. Stauffer, V., Williamson, B.J. (2005). New England and the Bavarian Illuminati. Oxford OX1 3BN: The Invisible College Press, LLC.

Power Tool Market Analysis Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Power Tool Market Analysis - Essay Example Finally, the difference in the estimates is not material. The projected values represent a decline of approximately 11.5% over the last year's figure of 1.8 million units by U.S. Census Bureau. The values for the last 5 years show a continuous declining trend. The following table summarizes the historic actual values. From the above statistics, it can be concluded that the demand for power tools in this sector may not increase in 2007 as the economic activity is declining. The demand may infact decrease since lesser number of houses will be developed. The expenditure for residential construction is expected to be at $504 billion as per Realtor, and $434 billion as per Haughey, in 2007. This shows a declining trend as the last year's (2006) figures show that the expenditure was $581 billion and $608 billion for 2005 (Realtor, 2007). The actual historic data is shown in the table below (U.S. Census Bureau: 930 - Value of Private Construction Put in Place: 1995 to 2005, 2007). This declining trend indicates that this sector will have less demand of power tools in 2007 than it was in prior years. This is because the expenditure for construction will decrease and power tools industry provides the tools that are used for construction. Hence, demand will be negatively affected for this market. The expend

Business Writing Class Members Respond to Postings Assignment

Business Writing Class Members Respond to Postings - Assignment Example Backing up any claims made using facts and statistics or visuals also help in assertive writing, therefore giving a reader confidence as to the accuracy of the information. Writing involves assertiveness rather than aggressiveness which is rude or passiveness which comes out as inaccurate/doubtful. I think that this is a good idea. An on-site daycare would also give assurance to the employee that their child is in safe hands since they will be close to them throughout the day. Offering learning opportunities and free health checkups is also an extra benefit to the employees. The daycare will eventually improve on the company’s productivity since employees will focus on their daily work knowing that their children are well taken care of. However, I feel as though a proper organizational review must be conducted before the commencement of this research. This is in order to know the demographics of the employees working there. For example, their age, marital status, number of kids and age of kids. By so doing the researcher is able to ascertain whether most employees are married, have kids and whether the kids are below 5 years old. Such a research may not be feasible in an organization where most employees are single, do not have kids or if they have children they are above 5 years old. A daycare may not be of help in such an organization and it may end up being a waste of resources. I absolutely concur with you, showing credibility is significant in a research. It is important that your work is supported by credible examples, illustration, visuals or even expert opinions and all these be properly cited as a reference.

Determined and Free

Determined and Free Will Essay At this point in my life I believe there is a balance in how many of our choices are determined and how many are free. The things that are determined for us are factors like what we are born into such as our ethnicity and social status. Also, if your parents are religious, you are raised under the influence of that religion. Most children embrace that faith as their own. These are life factors that you can change eventually, but usually due to societal influences you stay with these predetermined decisions. Certain determined things won’t ever be able to be altered. The color of your skin, and how you are treated because of it, is determined by where we are placed in life. Whether we are born with a medical condition or disorder is something we have no control over. Also, whether we have access to higher education or opportunity to move social classes. Many circumstances we don’t have power over are situational. The free will choices in our lives are day-to-day decisions that we make. However, these choices can have a major impact in our lives. I think there are many influences that can affect your free will, but the final decision lies in your own hands. You decide what social and personal influences infiltrate your decision, and in that is power. Things like your faith and morals shape who you are, so to make a decision with absolutely no influence is not necessarily of your own â€Å"free will†. Free will is having a say in your own decisions, it doesn’t matter what influences you unless you feel it limits you. I also believe that people differ in the amount of free will they have. The predetermined factors are generally the same for everyone, but the free choices are different. This is because people choose to let certain factors limit them, and others do not. If someone cares whether others judge him or her, they are less likely to decide to do something they really want if it is odd or embarrassing. Same method works if someone cares if their parents approve or not of their choices. These are limitations to your free will that you choose to adhere to.

A Comparison of Shakespeares Sonnet 18 and Duffys Valentine Essay

A Comparison of Shakespeare's Sonnet 18 and Duffy's Valentine Shakespear's attitude towards his lover is she is superior to the summer and very beautiful " Shall I compare thee to a summer's day?" This show Shakespeare is thinking about comparing her to the summer but then he gives examples of how she is better than the summer. He says she is lovelier than the summer " Thou art more lovely and more temperate." He then goes on to say "Rough winds do shake the darling buds of May" this means that she is more like a darling bud of May than a rough wind that come in the summer. He also explains, using a metaphor that the summer doesn't stay forever, but she will be beautiful forever " And summer's lease hath all too short a date." Then he says that sometimes the sun is too hot and is hidden by clouds but her beauty is never hidden and she is perfect. "Sometimes too hot the eye of heaven shines. And often is his gold complexion dimm'd" He then uses a double metaphor to explain that every living this is doomed to die and that nature cannot stop itself from dying ...

Physics Dot Points Prelim

Physics syllabus dot point summary Nathan Kulmar 8. 2. 1. 1 describe the energy transformations required in one of the following: – mobile telephone – fax/modem – radio and television Energy is stored as chemical energy in the phone’s battery. Chemical energy is transformed into electrical energy to operate the phone.The microphone converts sound energy in to electrical energy. Antanna converts electrical to electromagnetic energy to send a siginal. The receiver speaker converts electric energy in to sound energy. 8. 2. 1. 2 describe waves as a transfer of energy disturbance that may occur in one, two or three dimensions, depending on the nature of the wave and the medium The energy from waves may spread out as a disturbance in Dimension- Energy travels in a straight line from the source 2 Dimensions- Energy spreads out in a plane or surface 3 Dimensions- Energy spreads out in to space surrounding the source in all directions 8.2. 1. 3 identify that mechan ical waves require a medium for propagation while electromagnetic waves do not Mechanical waves: require a medium, solid, liquid or gas to transfer energy. Electromagnetic waves: which don’t require a medium for transfer of energy. 8. 2. 1. define and apply the following terms to the wave model: medium, displacement, amplitude, period, compression, rarefaction, crest, trough, transverse waves, longitudinal waves, frequency, wavelength, velocity Medium: is what isn’t need for the electromagnetic spectrum to travel. Displacement: the distance from the point of equilibrium to the wave Amplitude: the distance to the point of maximum displacement Period: time taken o complete a single wave length Compression: an area where partials are pushed togetherRarefaction: point where a partial reaches it’s maximum displacement vertically down Crest: the point where a partial reaches it’s maximum displacement vertically up Trough: the point where a partial reaches itâ⠂¬â„¢s maximum displacement vertically down Transverse waves: the direction of travel is at right angles to the oscillation (figure 2) Longitudinal waves: the direction of travel is parallel to the oscillation (figure 1) Frequency: the number of oscillations that pass a point in a second.V. remoteMissilesNight visibility gogglesSoft tissue treatment| Microwaves| Antenna| MobilesSending info. Cooking| Radio waves| Antenna| CommunicationAstronomy| 8. 2. 3. 4 explain that the relationship between the intensity of electromagnetic radiation and distance from a source is an example of the inverse square law I? 1d2 The intensity of the electromagnetic radiation is proportional to 1 divided by the distance squared. As the waves travel further from the point of origin they spread out and become less intense. I=k/d2 I=intensity k=constant d= distance 8. 2. 3. outline how the modulation of amplitude or frequency of visible light, microwaves and/or radio waves can be used to transmit informatio n Information is converted into a wave and then placed on a carrier wave. It uses the properties of superposition to place the wave on to the carrier wave. Digital is made up of a series of one’s and zero’s. Digital encoding is made in to binary and are transmitted via light, microwaves, television waves and waves from the electromagnetic spectrum. There are two types of analogue transition one is AM. AM stands for Amplitude Modulation.This works by a using a high frequency carrier wave which has the modulation signal placed on it. Frequency will remain the same but amplitude will change. The other Form is FM. This stands for Frequency Modulation. A wave is frequency is chosen as the carrier wave and the modulation signal is placed on the carrier wave. Amplitude stays the same. 8. 2. 3. 6 discuss problems produced by the limited range of the electromagnetic spectrum available for communication purposes All EMR (electromagnetic radiation) will suffer attenuation (reduct ion in intensity) as they pass through the atmosphere or any other material.As the earth is bombarded with UV radiation from the sun the ionosphere becomes charged. This can cause problems such as ghosting which is a double image on your T. V. screen. Also large portions of EMR are unable to be used because they are too dangerous such as Gamma-rays and X-rays. Ultraviolet and visible are too difficult to produce and encounter too much interference. Near infrared and infrared also have difficult because of impurities in optical fibbers will absorbed the light. Microwaves and T. V. waves require line of sight to be practical. . 2. 4. 1 describe and apply the law of reflection and explain the effect of reflection from a plane surface on waves Electromagnetic waves may be reflected from a plane surface and they must obey the Law of Reflection: Angle of incidence equals the angle of reflection Incident ray, reflected ray and normal must all be in the same plane. 8. 2. 4. 2 describe ways in which applications of reflection of light, radio waves and microwaves have assisted in information transfer Light is used in optical fibbers to transmit data.The light is reflected off the inside of the glass tube and can carry multiple messages at the same time in a single fibber. Radio waves are reflected off the ionosphere to that they can travel a longer distance. Microwaves send transitions to satellites where they are reflected back through the atmosphere to earth. 8. 2. 4. 3 describe one application of reflection Plane surfaces Mirrors. They allow people to look at their bodies without distortion. Concave surfaces Satellite dishes. They focus incoming rays to a single point called the focus and energised the signal at this point. Convex surface Rear vision mirrors.They allow a large field of view in a small area but will give the viewer a false scene of distance Radio waves being reflected by the ionosphere Radio waves are reflected off the ionosphere to provide a greater distance to which a listener can be from the source of the broadcast. 8. 2. 4. 4 explain that refraction is related to the velocities of a wave in different media and outline how this may result in the bending of a wavefront Refraction is the phenomenon where waves appear to bend as the waves pass from one medium to another. If wavefronts strike a boundary at any other angle other than 90 ° than a change of speed will occur.If a wave goes from one medium to another and the speed is lower than it will bend towards the normal. If it goes into a medium where the speed is faster than it will bend away from the normal. The waves bend because the incident ray first strikes the medium it slows down and the rest of the ray continues at the same speed until it makes contact with the medium. It is the wavelength that changes not the frequency. 8. 2. 4. 5 define refractive index in terms of changes in the velocity of a wave in passing from one medium to another The refractive index is the ra tio of the two wave velocities during the efraction. The refractive index is a measure of how much the light bends. 8. 2. 4. 6 define Snell’s Law: V1V2=sin isin r V1 and V2 are the speeds of the waves in wave in the different mediums. Sin i is the angle of incidence and sin r is the angle of reflection. It is the relationship between speed, wavelength and angles of incidence refraction was determined experimentally by Willebrorod Snell and is known as Snell’s law. 8. 2. 4. 7 identify the conditions necessary for total internal reflection with reference to the critical angle If the critical angle is reached than the angle or reflection is 90 °.When the critical angle is exceeded than the light can’t escape and total internal refraction occurs. The light must be travelling from a medium with a higher refractive index to one with a lower refractive index. 8. 2. 4. 8 outline how total internal reflection is used in optical fibres Optical fibres are one application of total internal refraction. They are made of high purity glass, the central region is called the core and the outer region called the cladding. The cladding confines the light to the core and thus must have a lower refractive index than the core.Once information is digitally encoded, at the transmitting end, the signal is converted from electrical energy to light energy and then transmitted along the optical fibre. The information is sent as a series of coded pulses of light. The pulse is either on or off. At the receiving end it is decoded. 8. 2. 5. 1 identify types of communication data that are stored or transmitted in digital form CD ROMs (Compact Disk Read-Only Memory) these discs store data in digitised form as tiny bits. They are read using a low power laser beam. They cannot be edited and are read only.They are fairly slow to read and can only store 8000Mbytes DVD (Digital Versatile Discs) these disks can hole 5 billion bytes of data, thus making possible the storage of m emory consuming movie length video and sound. GPS (Global Positioning Systems) this worldwide system uses a fleet of 24 satellites that transmit signals constantly. A GPS system, few hundred dollars, can interact with the satellite to pinpoint your latitude, longitude and altitude with in 50m. 8. 3. 1. 1 discuss how the main sources of domestic energy have changed over time.The sources of domestic energy have changed rapidly over time: * 50,000 BC: control of fire: cooking and heating * 10,000 BC: domestication of animals: animal power for transport and ploughing. * 3,000 BC: wind and water power: sailing boats and windmills * 1750 AD: burning of coal begins to replace wood. Steam engines, trains, steam, ships. * 1780-1800: scientific investigations of the properties of electricity. Conflicting theories, scientific curiosity small amounts of energy in batteries. * 1830’s: discover how to generate electricity using a â€Å"dynamo† (generator).Still used in scientific la bs. * 1880-1910: a flood of inventions such as the light bulb, telephone, gramophone and radio were create with electricity. * 1950- : all industrialized nations had become totally converted to electricity for domestic power. 8. 3. 1. 2 assess some of the impacts of changes in, and increased access to, sources of energy for a community Some impacts of charges in sources of energy are: * The use of coal has had a particularly large impact on our society. * Coal burns hot fires to make steel and other metals. Steel major factor that lead to the industrial revolution. * Coal lead to the development of the steam engine. * Pollution and global warming was created. 8. 3. 1. 3 discuss some of the ways in which electricity can be provided in remote locations Use small generators that rotate a coil by a petrol or oil motor. Solar cells and wind generators are also used to convert sunlight and wind into electricity. 8. 3. 2. 1 describe the behaviour of electrostatic charges and the properties of the fields associated with them * Two types of charges positive and negative Charges go away from positive, charges go towards negative * An electrostatic charge is a charge due to an excess or deficiency of electrons. * A body with equal number of protons and electrons will be neutral. * Body has an excess of electron is negatively charged. 8. 3. 2. 2 define the unit of electric charge as the coulomb Electric charge is measured in coulombs the coulomb (c) is the SI unit of electric charge. 1 coulomb = 1c = 6. 25 x10^18 charge = 1. 6 x10^19 charge 8. 3. 2. 3 define the electric field as a field of force with a field strength equal to the force per unit charge at that point: E=FqE = magnitude of electric field (NC-1) Newton per coulomb q = charge (C) coulombs F = force (N) Newton 8. 3. 2. 4 define electric current as the rate at which charge flows (coulombs/ second or amperes) under the influence of an electric field Current is the rate at which charge flows (Csec. or Amperes) un der the influence of an electric field. I= QT I = current Q= charge (coulombs) T= time (sec) 8. 3. 2. 5 identify that current can be either direct with the net flow of charge carriers moving in one direction or alternating with the charge carriers moving backwards and forwards periodically DC = direct currentCharge moves in one direction Direct positive to negative movement AC = alternating current Charge moves back and forth periodically. Directions changes 50 times per second. 8. 3. 2. 6 describe electric potential difference (voltage) between two points as the change in potential energy per unit charge moving from one point to the other (joules/coulomb or volts) Electric potential difference (Voltage) between two points is the change in potential energy per unit charge moving from one point to another (joules/coulomb or Volts). . 3. 2. 7 discuss how potential difference changes between different points around a DC circuit Potential difference can vary at different points around a circuit for example there will be different voltage drops across various resistors, light globes and rheostats which would be different to the voltage rise across the power pack. 8. 3. 2. 8 identify the difference between conductors and insulators Insulators will not allow electricity to flow through them because they have a very high resistance.Conductors have a very low resistance and therefore will allow current to flow through them. 8. 3. 2. 9 define resistance as the ratio of voltage to current for a particular conductor: V=IR V= Voltage I= Current in amps R= Resistance in ohms 8. 3. 2. 10 describe qualitatively how each of the following affects the movement of electricity through a conductor: Length: Resistance is proportional to length; the longer a conductor the greater the resistance Cross sectional area: larger the cross-section the lower the resistance.Temperature: temperature increases ions vibrate increasing resistance. Material: material of a conductor influences resi stance; copper is commonly used for household wiring, gold or silver used when minimal resistance required. 8. 3. 3. 1 identify the difference between series and parallel circuits Series: * There is only one current pathway. * Current is the same throughout the whole circuit * If a series circuit is broken at any point then the electricity cannot flow through it. * Current remains constant and voltage varies (VT=V1+V2+V3).Parallel: * There is more then one current pathway. * All components have the same potential difference across them * In parallel, voltage remains constant and current varies (IT=I1+I2+I3). 8. 3. 3. 2 compare parallel and series circuits in terms of voltage across components and current through them Parallel| Series| VT= V1 = V2 = V3| VT= V1 + V2 + V3| IT=I1 + I2 + I3| IT=I1 = I2 = I3| 8. 3. 3. 3 identify uses of ammeters and voltmeters Ammeters measure the flow of electrons through a point in the circuit.Voltmeters measure the potential difference between two poin ts. 8. 3. 3. 4 explain why ammeters and voltmeters are connected differently in a circuit Ammeter: cannot change the current being measured, must have minimum resistance, current must flow through the ammeter, MUST BE PLACED IN SERIES Voltmeter: measure the penitential difference (voltage) between two points in a circuit, PLACED IN PARALLEL CURCUITS, important that voltmeter has high resistance so that there is not affect on the circuit. 8. 3. 3. explain why there are different circuits for lighting, heating and other appliances in a house In a house there are separate circuits for lighting, heating and other appliances so that appliances that require large amounts of current can still function without over-loading the circuit. If everything was on one circuit there would be too much current used and the wires would become hot and potentially cause a fire. 8. 3. 4. 1 explain that power is the rate at which energy is transformed from one form to another Power is defined as the rate a t which energy is transformed from one form to another. watt=1 W=1J/s 1kW=1000watts P=ET Power ((Joules = watts (W)) = Energy (J) / time (s) 8. 3. 4. 2 identify the relationship between power, potential difference and current Power is the number of joules per second (watts), for every current (I in Amps), Voltage (v in volts) are dissipated. P=VI Power (Watts) = Voltage (V) x Current (A) 8. 3. 4. 3 identify that the total amount of energy used depends on the length of time the current is flowing and can be calculated using: Energy=VIt Electrical energy (joules) = Voltage (volts) x Current (amps) x Time (sec) P=VIPower (Watts) = Voltage (V) x Current (A) P=ET Power ((Joules = watts (W)) = Energy (J) / time (s) 8. 3. 4. 4 explain why the kilowatt-hour is used to measure electrical energy consumption rather than the joule 1kW. h is the energy used by a 1 kW appliance operating for 1 hour. Measuring in joule is a big inconvenient because 1 joule is a very tiny amount of energy. 8. 3. 5. 1 describe the behaviour of the magnetic poles of bar magnets when they are brought close together Magnets have 2 different poles north and south. They can either be attract or repel each other.Opposite poles attract, same poles repel. 8. 3. 5. 2 define the direction of the magnetic field at a point as the direction of force on a very small north magnetic pole when placed at that point The direction of a magnetic field is the direction of force on a very small magnetic north pole placed in the field. The currents from the north pole more towards to the south pole. 8. 3. 5. 3 describe the magnetic field around pairs of magnetic poles Field lines come out of the North and into the south. Field lines never cross. The magnitude of the field is indicated by the density of the field lines. . 3. 5. 4 describe the production of a magnetic field by an electric current in a straight current-carrying conductor and describe how the right hand grip rule can determine the direction of current an d field lines The direction of the magnetic field is described by the right hand rule. Right hand grip rule: Grip wire with right hand, thumb pointing in direction of conventional current, fingers will curl around in the direction of the magnetic field. 8. 3. 5. 5 compare the nature and generation of magnetic fields by solenoids and a bar magnet * A solenoid is a coil of wire. When a current flows in the solenoid it produces a magnetic field around the coil which is similar to that of a bar magnet. * In a solenoid the field continues through the middle as parallel lines. * The direction of the magnetic field inside a solenoid is given by the right hand rule. 8. 3. 6. 1 discuss the dangers of an electric shock from both a 240 volt AC mains supply and various DC voltages, from appliances, on the muscles of the body * The neuromuscular system runs on the movement of electrical changes. An electric current through the body has the effect to disrupt its normal function. A typical respons e of your body’s muscles to an electric shock would be: * Muscles contract so you won’t be able to let go. * Muscles controlling the diaphragm cause it to clamp (can’t breathe) * Heart muscle goes into fibrillation (stops effective beating till heart stops altogether) * Death * Human bodies can withstand ten times as much DC current as AC, AC operates on frequency (50-60 Hz) which is the same frequency our heart operates making AC significantly more lethal than DC. 50-100 mA are the lethal limits for electric shock. 8. 3. 6. describe the functions of circuit breakers, fuses, earthing, double insulation and other safety devices in the home Circuit breakers: they use an electromagnet to mechanically break the circuit. Once the current exceeds the maximum value. Fuses: they prevent overloading of circuits. They are made of a metal with a low melting point. They melt when the current through the circuit exceeds the wiring. They are usually contained in high melting point materials to avoid fires. Earthing: they protect from shock. If an appliance has any metal exposes than it will have the outer cover earthed to protect shock.It works on the bases that there is less resistance through the wire rather than through a person. Double insulation: house hold wiring must be covered by an insulator. Usually made of plastic ((polyvinylchloride, (PVC)) many have double insulating in case the inner insulation melts when the metal gets to hot. 8. 4. 1. 1 identify that a typical journey involves speed changes In a typical car journey, a car may travel at different speeds, accelerate and decelerate, changes direction and stops therefore although there is an average speed for the entire journey, the vehicle does not travel at a constant speed. . 4. 1. 2 distinguish between scalar and vector quantities in equations Scalar quantities are those that specify size (magnitude), but not direction. Vector quantities are defined by both size (magnitude) and direction . Vectors| Scalar| Force| Mass| Velocity| Speed| Displacement| Distance| Acceleration| Work| Momentum| Energy| Magnetic Fields| Power| Electric Fields| Time| 8. 4. 1. 3 compare instantaneous and average speed with instantaneous and average velocity Average Speed = Distance/Total Time Instantaneous Speed is the speed of an object at a particular instant of time.Velocity (v) is the time rate of change of the displacement. It is a vector; it requires both size and direction. It is speed with a direction. Displacement (s) is distance in a given direction. Instantaneous velocity is the velocity at a particular instant, the speed and the direction. Average Velocity is displacement/time. 8. 4. 1. 4 define average velocity as: vav= ? r? t r = s = displacement. Average velocity= change in displacement/ change in time. 8. 4. 2. 1 describe the motion of one body relative to another Motion occurs when an object changes its position relative to other or some co-ordinate system (a frame of refere nce).If a change in direction occurs thorough vector qualities, must be dealt with as vectors. 8. 4. 2. 2 identify the usefulness of using vector diagrams to assist solving problems Vectors qualities have magnitude and direction. Adding Vectors Draw the first vector. Draw the second vector starting from the end of the first. The resultant vector is the line joining the beginning of the first vector to the end of the second. 6km 8km 10km a 6km 8km 10km a Subtracting Vectors V1 – V2 = Change in VChange V = V (f) – V (i) V1 -V2 V1 – V2 V1 -V2 V1 – V2 Change = Final – Initial Change V 8-(-10) = 18 -10m/s 8m/s -10m/s m/s 8. 4. 2. 3 explain the need for a net external force to act in order to change the velocity of an object Forces can internal or external to a system but only the external forces can affect the motion of the system. Net force = sum of all forces. Change in velocity the object must accelerate. An object will remain in constant motion (res t or 0 velocity) unless an unbalanced force acts on the object. To accelerate there must be an outside force acting (Newton’s 1st law). Newton’s first law states that: A body continues in its state of rest or uniform velocity unless acted upon by an unbalanced force. . 4. 2. 4 describe the actions that must be taken for a vehicle to change direction, speed up and slow down Acceleration is defined as the time rate of change of velocity. Acceleration refers to: Speeding Up: this can be done by using the accelerator Slowing Down: this can be done by using the cars brakes Changing Direction: Using the steering wheel 8. 4. 2. 5 describe the typical effects of external forces on bodies including: Friction between surfaces Air resistance There are a number of external forces working on a car and these include: Friction with the Road Air Resistance The weight of the carFriction is a force that we encounter everyday in everything we do. Friction is a force that always opposes m otion. Friction arises when two different materials are in contact with each other. The tires make contact with the road surface and as a result there is friction. This means that the vehicle has traction and does not simply slide. Air Resistance is a form of Friction. As a vehicle moves through the air the two materials, the vehicles body and the air, move past each other. Air resistance limits the speed of the vehicle but it can be minimized by designing a vehicle so that it is aerodynamically shaped. . 4. 2. 6 define average acceleration as: vav= ? r? t therefore vav=v-ut Acceleration is a change in velocity over a certain time period. It can be positive or negative. v= final velocity, u= initial velocity, t= time taken 8. 4. 2. 7 define the terms ‘mass’ and ‘weight’ with reference to the effects of gravity Mass: Is the measure of the amount of matter in an object Measure of inertia (resistance to acceleration) Independent or the effects of gravity Measu red in grams. Weight Is the force of gravity on an object. On earth weight is the mass x 9. 8 Dependent on the amount of massMeasure of the gravity and force on an object Measured in Newton’s. 8. 4. 2. 8 outline the forces involved in causing a change in the velocity of a vehicle when: Coasting with no pressure on the accelerator Friction with the Road Air Resistance Force Pushing car along Pressing on the accelerator The driver is supplying more fuel to the engine. This allows the engine to apply a greater force on the wheels and hence make the car speed up. Velocity and acceleration acting in the same direction. Pressing on the brakes Increasing the friction between the brake pads and the metal discs making it harder for the wheels to turn.Velocity and Acceleration acting in different directions. Passing over an icy patch on the road There is less friction and the wheels can’t get as much grip so they may slide. The car will move at a constant velocity until acted up on by an external force. Climbing and descending hills Friction Air Resistance The cars weight causes it to slow down when going up the hill and speed up when going down the hill Following a curve in the road Centripetal force is causing the car to accelerate as the velocity is changing owing to the change in direction. 8. 4. 2. interpret Newton’s Second Law of Motion and relate it to the equation: F=ma F= Force in Newtons m= mass a= acceleration 8. 4. 2. 10 identify the net force in a wide variety of situations involving modes of transport and explain the consequences of the application of that net force in terms of Newton’s Second Law of Motion The acceleration of an object is proportional to the unbalanced force acting on it and is inversely proportional to the mass. The consequences of net external force acting on a model of transport are acceleration, deceleration and a change of direction in motion.Centripetal force (circular motion) The force causing the turning is always towards the centre of the circle. Force (centripetal) = mv^2/ R R=radius, V= instantaneous velocity, M= mass 8. 4. 3. 1 identify that a moving object possesses kinetic energy and that work done on that object can increase that energy Kinetic Energy is the energy an object possesses because it is moving. Kinetic energy is dependent on the mass and the square of the velocity of the body as indicated by: KE=12mv2 E= kinetic energy (joules) M=mass of the object (kg) V=velocity (m/s)Work (W) is done when a force (F) is moved through a distance (s). Work is the product of a force and the distance moved in the direction of that force. W=Fs. Work transfers energy through the motion of a force. When work is done, energy is required. W = Change in Kinetic energy 8. 4. 3. 2 describe the energy transformations that occur in collisions In collisions objects exert forces on each other. Collisions can be either: Elastic Non-Elastic Elastic Collisions If in a collision, kinetic energy is conserved, the collision is said to be elastic.An example would be when Gas molecules collide with each other and with the walls of their container as kinetic energy is not decreased. Inelastic Collisions In inelastic collisions, kinetic energy is not conserved. Some of the Kinetic energy is transformed into other forms of energy such as heat and sound. If the colliding parts stick together, the collision is inelastic 8. 4. 3. 3 define the law of conservation of energy In all types of interactions, both elastic and inelastic, total energy is conserved. Energy cannot be destroyed only can be changed from one form to another. . 4. 4. 1 define momentum as: p=mv Momentum= mass (kg) x velocity (m/s) Unit of momentum= kilogram-meter/sec To stop a moving object, forces must be applied and the forces relate to two factors, the mass of the object and the velocity of the object. The time rate of change of momentum is proportional to the resultant force and acts in the direction of the force. Always conserved Vector quantity 8. 4. 4. 2 define impulse as the product of force and time Impulse = F (force) x t (time) Impulse = change in momentum Impulse = Ft = mv – mu mv = final momentum u = initial momentum The unit of Impulse is N. s which is the same as the Unit of momentum= kilogram-meter/sec (kg. m/sec) 8. 4. 4. 3 explain why momentum is conserved in collisions in terms of Newton’s Third Law of motion Force (action) = Force (reaction) Conservation of Momentum The total momentum of a system is always the same unless the system on by some external force. P (before) = P (after) m1u1+m2u2= m1v1+m2v2 This equation shows that: the vector sum of the momentum of the objects before collision equals the vector sum of the momentum after collision.Momentum is conserved only in isolated systems (those free from external forces). The Law of the Conservation of Momentum can be stated as: In interactions between objects, momentum is conserved in an isolated system. 8. 4. 5. 1 define the inertia of a vehicle as its tendency to remain in uniform motion or at rest Newton’s 1st law: Inertia: â€Å"Tendency of any object to resist any change in motion. † E. g. when a car stops suddenly, the objects and people in the car remain in the current motion unless acted upon by an external force such as a seatbelt. 8. 4. 5. discuss reasons why Newton’s First Law of Motion is not apparent in many real world situations Common experience is not apparent in Real World Situations as the driver of a car still needs to depress the accelerator to move at a constant rate because of friction between the car and the road. 8. 4. 5. 3 assess the reasons for the introduction of low speed zones in built-up areas and the addition of air bags and crumple zones to vehicles with respect to the concepts of impulse and momentum Introduced low speed zones into built areas to reduce the speed of drivers as the faster you are moving the more damage you do in a coll ision.Crumple Zones were introduced so that the front and rear end of the car should crumple in a collision which increases the time it takes for the car to come to rest so the forces are lessened. Air Bags were introduced which provide a cushion and takes the impact out of a collision. 8. 4. 5. 4 evaluate the effectiveness of some safety features of motor vehicles Seat Belts They are effective in limiting the effect of inertia when a vehicle breaks suddenly. It absorbs a lot of the force of a collision. Airbags Air Bags were introduced which provide a cushion and takes the impact out of a collision.Crumple Zones Crumple Zones were introduced so that the front and rear end of the car should crumple in a collision which increases the time it takes for the car to come to rest so the forces are lessened. 8. 5. 1. 1 outline the historical development of models of the Universe from the time of Aristotle to the time of Newton Plato| planets move in spherical orbits around the earth (geoce ntric) | Eudoxus| maintained Plato’s concepts of spherical motions, complex arrangements of circular motions| Aristotle| developed Eudoxus model to 53 spheres. |Aristarchus| The sun is in the centre (heliocentric) with everything orbiting around it and epicycle moments to explain planetary movements; Earth must rotate on its axis, so it appears that everything moves around us. | Ptolemy| believed in geocentric universe, stars existed on a sphere which rotated every 24 hours, earth is a sphere and at rest, motion of sun and plants moved in perfect circles. | Copernicus| heliocentric universe, sun was the centre and planets orbited the sun in fixed circular motions, earth traveled around the sun in 1 year and spins on its axis every 24 hours. Galileo| first to use a telescope, supported the heliocentric idea of Copernicus, worked on gravitational theory disproved Aristotle concepts of the motion. | Sir Isaac Newton| from work on motion realized that a forcer must be acting on a n object such as the moon, law of universal gravitation, this explain where things stayed in orbit, since the time of Newton the heliocentric model was accepted. | 8. 5. 2. 1 outline the discovery of the expansion of the Universe by Hubble, following its earlier prediction by Friedmann Alexander Friedman predicted that the universe was expanding.The predictions rose from calculations based on Einstein’s, general theory of relativity. Edwin Hubble designed a new and a bigger telescope that leads to the discovery of the red shift proving that the universe is expanding. A red shift corresponds to a shift to the lower frequency (longer wavelength). This indicates that the light source, the galaxy is moving away from us. All galaxies show this effect indicating that the universe is expanding. 8. 5. 2. 2 describe the transformation of radiation into matter which followed the ‘Big Bang’ After the temperature had dropped enough.The energy began to be converted in to matt er. Hydrogen atoms formed from protons and electrons. 8. 5. 2. 3 identify that Einstein described the equivalence of energy and mass E=mc2 E= energy (Joules) m= mass (kg) c= speed of light (3 x 108 ms-1) 8. 5. 2. 4 outline how the accretion of galaxies and stars occurred through: Expansion and cooling of the Universe The cooling of the universe allowed the formation of matter. This began to overwhelm the radiation Subsequent loss of particle kinetic energyAs the temperature fell this resulted in a loss of kinetic energy (as temperature is the measure of average kinetic energy of the particles) Gravitational attraction between particles Loss in Kinetic energy meant that the increased gravitational force between particles took effect Lumpiness of the gas cloud that then allows gravitational collapse The greater density of areas of the gas clouds allowed gravity to begin 8. 5. 3. 1 define the relationship between the temperature of a body and the dominant wavelength of the radiation em itted from that body The hotter the star the shorter the wave length.Hot star: short wave length, more energy. Cold star: long wave length, less energy 8. 5. 3. 2 identify that the surface temperature of a star is related to its colour Red | Long wavelength| Orange| | Yellow | | White blue- white| Short wavelength| The hotter the star gets the more it will shift towards the blue end of the spectrum and thus the shorter the wavelength. 8. 5. 3. 3 describe a Hertzsprung-Russell diagram as the graph of a star’s luminosity against its colour or surface temperature In the Hertzsprung-Russell diagram a stars surface temperature and luminosity (brightness) are plotted against each other.This is because there is a relationship between the two. 8. 5. 3. 4 identify energy sources characteristic of each star group, including Main Sequence, red giants, and white dwarfs Star group| Fuel| Characteristics| Main sequence| H then He| They are from the top left of the Hertzsprung-Russell diagr am to the bottom right. This shows a trend of hot and bright to cold and dull| Red giants| H then He| In the upper right corner of the Hertzsprung-Russell diagram and are bright but cold| White dwarfs| C and O ions| Bottom left of the Hertzsprung-Russell diagram. They are very hot but dim and small. 8. 5. 4. 1 identify that energy may be released from the nuclei of atoms Light atoms like H will fuse together at extreme temperatures to for stable atoms. This produces energy. Uranium on the other hand has very unstable nuclei and will break down by emitting energy or partials randomly. That may be in the form of ? , ? or gamma rays. 8. 5. 4. 2 describe the nature of emissions from the nuclei of atoms as radiation of alpha ? and beta ? particles and gamma ? rays in terms of: ionising power penetrating power effect of magnetic field effect of electric fieldRadiation| Ionizing power| Penetrating Power| Effect of Magnetic Field| Effect of Electric Field| Alpha Particle| Very high Strong| Low a few cm in the air| Affected according to right hand palm rule| Limited – very small| Beta Particle| Less than AlphaWeak| Higher than Alpha thin sheets of lead| Large| Large| Gamma Ray| Less than BetaVery Weak| Very High Several cm of lead| Zero| Zero| 8. 5. 4. 3 identify the nature of emissions reaching the Earth from the Sun Solar wind consists of a stream of ionised particles, mostly protons and electrons that flow from the sun in all directions at speeds of about 400 km. -1. The source of the wind is the sun’s hot corona – the outer atmosphere of the sun extending a distance of a few solar radii into space. Most of the corona consists of vast arches of hot gas – solar flares – that are millions of kilometres in length and are caused by the sun’s magnetic field. The Solar wind comes from regions called coronal holes, regions of cooler, less dense gas. As the sun rotates there is a periodic variation in Solar wind activity every 27 da ys. The Solar wind is responsible for pushing the tail of comets away from the sun. 8. 5. 4. 4 describe the particulate nature of solar windSunspot cycle is a pattern of increasing and decreasing sunspots. Sun spots are a dark spot on the sun with lower temperatures and intense magnetic activity. Cycle is between 7-13 years. Two types of emission reaching Earth from the sun: electromagnetic radiation and solar winds. Earth’s atmosphere and magnetic field shelters as from theses emissions. The sunspots themselves last for several days although larger ones may last up to a few weeks. The number of particles and their velocity increases following sunspot activity and solar flares meaning that the solar wind is greater in the time of maximum sunspots. . 5. 4. 5 describe sunspots as representing regions of strong magnetic activity and lower temperature Sunspots are relatively cool areas (~4500K), with magnetic field strengths some thousands of times stronger than the Earth’ s magnetic field, that appear as dark imperfections in the photosphere. They result from the penetration of magnetic field lines through the photosphere and are ~8000km across. Except for the smaller ones, all sunspots have a dark inner region – the umbra – where the magnetic field is strongest surrounded by a less dark region – the penumbra – where the magnetic field is weakest.

Aetiology, pathogenesis, diagnosis and treatment Cystic fibrosis: role of P. aeruginosa infection in cystic fibrosis patients

Introduction Cystic Fibrosis (CF) is a genetic disorder of salt and water regulation in the cell. The disease is caused by mutations in the cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR) gene (Cohen and Prince, 2012). The molecular basis of CF depends on its transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR) protein, which functions as a channel and regulates the movement of ions and water across the epithelial barrier. The barrier opens in response to increased levels of intracellular cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP). The gene in normal condition is responsible for salt (chloride) and water balance in the body. However, if mutated, is not able to excrete out enough salt of the cell; thus resulting, the build of salt within the cell forming sticky mucus. If accumulated in the lungs, this sticky mucus may clinically affect the epithelial innate function of the lungs and may result in ineffective airway inflammation that fails to eradicate pulmonary pathogens (Cohen and Prince, 2012). The working mechanism of CFTR protein under normal condition is shown in figure 1. Studies have shown that increase in sodium (Na) re-absorption on the epithelial cells may indicate an event in cystic fibrosis lung disease (Cohen and Prince, 2012). These mutations on the (CFTR) protein have impacts on its production and transfer to the epical membrane of the epithelial cells, thereby influencing the conductance of chloride and bicarbonate ions across the channels resulting in the CFTR ionic imbalance of on the epithelial cells of different organs. This leads to the formation of excessive mucus in the cells, which provides an ideal condition for bacteria growth and multiplication. Interestingly, even uncommon lung bacteria such as pseudomonas have been found to inhabit in the lungs exploiting the ideal condition (Clunes and Boucher, 2007). Abnormality in the CFTR pathway results in the increase of glycolipids on the surface of CF airway epithelial cells. These glycolipids serve as receptors to increase the binding activities of bacteria, thereby facilitating the early infection process, which is a hallmark of the disease. Moreover, defect in CFTR gene is also associated with decreased nitric oxide concentration in the cell. Nitric oxide possesses antibacterial properties; thus, decrease in its concentration may predispose an individual to severe infections with faulty CFTR gene (Clunes and Boucher, 2007). In addition, the role of inflammation in CF pathogenesis seems equally important. Inflammatory response produced against the infectious pathogens in CF patients may have detrimental effects to the host cells. Inflammatory infiltrates including macrophages, neutrophils, cytokines and interleukins may induce tissue damaging responses, further deteriorating the lung function (Cymberknoh, et.al. 2013). Inhabitation of bacteria in cystic fibrosis lung As mentioned earlier, even uncommon bacterium including Pseudomonas aeruginosa can reside in the cystic fibrosis lung (Hauser, et.al. 2011). Pseudomonas aeruginosa is a gram negative, rod shaped, aerobic bacterium that prefers moist environment for growth. Commonly they are found in places such as sewage and in certain areas of the human body. Furthermore, they reside in lakes, moist vegetables, moist soil and streams. Studies have also suggested that that most human infections due to P. aeruginosa result due to contact with these natural reservoirs (Friman, et.al. 2013). Pseudomonas aeruginosa has been recognized as an important pathogen in CF. Soon after residence in the lungs, it becomes extremely difficult to eradicate them by antibiotics. The persistent presence of these bacteria in the lungs ultimately results failure of the immune system to provide a defense against them; this leads to respiratory failure resulting in death of the patient (Folkesson, et.al. 2012). Firstly, P.aeruginosa acquires the airway of the patient with cystic fibrosis, which occurs during the very early phase of the disease. Infection may ensue once this bacterium enters the CF host and colonizes the oropharynx, then to the lower respiratory tract by process of micro aspiration. Infection becomes intermittent at the initial stage as a result of acquisition of different strains. During the early stage of infection, the isolate looks like environmental strains, non-mucoid and susceptible to antibiotics. Eventually P. aeruginosa establishes itself and chronic infection ensues (Folkesson, et.al. 2012). In chronic stage of CF, P. aeruginosa produces a mucoid alginate by growing in bio-film of the end- bronchiolar space. It lacks lipopolysaccharide and becomes non-motile, resulting in the development of antibiotic resistance during. Despite the known mechanism and availability of antibiotics, P.aeruginosa is able to chronically infect the airway of patients with CF and is able to cause an unrelenting decline in pulmonary function and deterioration; but how these happen has been focus on intense research (Folkesson, et.al. 2012). Molecular pathogenesis of P.aeruginosa infection in CF The molecular basis of infection due to P. aeruginosa in CF is still not fully understood. However, it may be peculiar to a specific strain at the time of adaptation after acquisition. Studies have indicated that the persistence of the bacterium in the lungs might be due to its high level of propensity and the ability to adapt with environmental changes and stress (Hauser, et.al. 2011). aeruginosa possesses traits that enable them to colonize and persist in acute and chronic infection. These traits include; High resistance to antibiotics (Zhang, et.al. 2011) Effective cell-cell communication singalling for growth and multiplication (Friman, et.al. 2013). Ability to form biofilms, plethora and virulence products and metabolic versatility (Wagner and Iglewski, 2008). The biofilms are synthesized by the bacterium encased within a hydrated polymeric matrix and are clinically important; this is because, P. aeruginosa in this mode of growth utilizes it to cope with phagocytes by the neutrophils and macrophages, as well as to the killing by antibiotics. This allows them for persistent survival in chronically infected CF despite the continuous natural immune response and antibiotics effect (Zhang, et.al. 2011). The disease pathogenesis and severity is further triggered by inflammatory responses in the later stage of the disease. Mainly the pro-inflammatory enhancers become physiologically active in the absence of function CFTR gene. Although the exact inflammatory pathophysiology of CF still remains debatable, persistent infection, poor pathogen clearance, acidic environment and are considered some of the key triggers for initiating chronic inflammatory response in the lungs of the patient with CF (Pier, 2008). The mechanism is explained in figure 2. Synthesis of ceramide from sphingomyelin by acid sphingomyelinase (ASM) and degradation by acid ceramidase (AC) is optimal at an acidic pH, such as that of normal intracellular vesicles (pH 4.5). Lack of functional CFTR increases vesicle pH to 5.9, partially inhibiting ASM and highly inhibiting AC, resulting in ceramide accumulation in the vesicle and age-dependent pulmonary inflammation. Other properties of the cystic fibrosis–affected lung, including lack of the CFTR receptor needed for clearing Pseudomonas aeruginosa, enhanced mucin secretion, a dehydrated airway surface liquid, viscous mucus and DNA deposits released from ceramide-engorged apoptotic cells, also contribute to P. aeruginosa airway colonization. Eventually, this microbe establishes a chronic infection wherein bacterial cells reside in low-oxygen mucus plugs and become highly resistant to clearance or killing by host defenses (Pier, 2008) P.aeruginosa potentially synthesize factors such as proteolytic enzymes, which damage the host cells by altering the host iron-containing protein forming hydroxyl radicals that contribute to host tissue injury and inflammation; thereby decreasing the level of anti-inflammatory cytokines including IL-10, and at the same time, activating neutrophils in the airway lumen. Continuous recruitment of these neutrophils induces tissue damaging inflammatory response mainly affecting pulmonary tissue. Furthermore, neutrophils trigger the production of pro-inflammatory cytokine such as IL-8, which further contributes in the tissue damage process. In addition to pro-inflammatory cytokines, neutrophils also release the oxygen free radicals that induce apoptosis (programmed cell death) of the epithelial tissue in the lungs. Thus, to conclude, the role of neutrophils in airway inflammation in patients with CF seems crucial. Instead of providing innate immunity to the infected lung, it rather trigger s detrimental inflammatory response and promote the growth of P. aeruginosa though the production of different growth enhancing cytokines, leading to the destruction of the lung tissue (Sagel, et.al. 2009). The effectiveness of the immune response in CF is exploited, allowing the establishment of a relentless cycle, whereby persistent bacteria cause increased inflammation that itself leads to increased bacterial densities, which in turn results stronger inflammatory response (Sagel, et.al. 2009). The net result is progressive tissue damage and pathological consequences and sequelae of CF that include mucopurulent plugging of bronchioles, chronic bronchitis (inflammation of the bronchioles) and bronchial gland hyperplasia (increase in the cell size of bronchial gland cells). The airway later becomes dilated and results bronchiectatic due to loss of support cartilage (Pickett, 2013). Treatment options for cystic fibrosis The decision to treat patients who are infected with P.aeruginosa can be very challenging. Prolonged treatment with antibiotics can have toxic side effects, as well as increases the chance of microbial resistance in the patients. Also, prolonged treatment may cause long term harm. Data suggest that 80% of the patients with CF die indirectly or directly from pulmonary disease (Hurley, et.al. 2012). Clinically, there has been very little progress in the development of new antibiotics with novel mode of action. Recently, researchers exploited the adjuvant therapeutic agents that may be used alongside the conventional antibiotics. Source control measures, de-escalation of antibacterial should be followed up in patients with clinical response, especially with known antibacterial susceptibilities (Hurley, et.al. 2012). Considering the virulence of this pathogen, the progress of various strategies such as efflux pumps and lectins, the use of iron chelators, immunization, immunotherapy, and inhibition of quorum sensing are currently being tested clinically for the better management of the disease. It has also been suggested that the impacts of intervening virulence of P. aeruginosa should also be assessed (Hurley, et.al. 2012). Some novel therapies are also based upon the fact that CF is caused by the mutation of the gene encoding CFTR protein; targeting the defects produced in CFTR with invacaftor in one such approach. This novel treatment seems promising in patients with specific genotype of CF. Although the long term-outcome remains unknown, the development of CFTR targeted drug is an important milestone in CF (Petit, et.al. 2012). More recently, gene therapy has been extensively studied for the complete cure of the disease. However, the technique is not easy and has several limitations and hurdles. For instance, the research on this approach is very time consuming and often very expensive. However, focus of research has been on identifying the optimal vector for gene therapy (Picket, et.al. 2013). Thus, the management of CF has been a major challenge ever since the discovery of the disease. However, advancement in medical technologies and treatments has improved the prognosis of the disease. More sophisticated treatment including gene therapy (replacing faulty CFTR gene with a normal gene) has been the focus of intense research. P. aeruginosa resistance in CF Pseudomonas aeruginosa is one of the common infections in western society, because of its high level of resistance to antibiotics. The synergistic relationship between the outer membrane permeability and the efflux pumps is the most important factor influencing intrinsic antibiotic resistance in Gram-negative bacteria like P. aeruginosa (Liu, et. al. 1996). The high level of P. aeruginosa resistance is due to the acquired genes coding for amino glycoside-modifying enzymes or periplasmic beta-lactamases or mutations in fluoroquinolone targets (Liu, et.al. 1996). Low outer membrane permeability, which is caused by either less production of the OprD porin, or by expressing multidrug resistance efflux pumps contributes to high level of intrinsic antibiotics resistance (Liu, et.al. 1996). Numerous efflux pumps such as MexAB-OprM and MerXY-oprMb MexAB-OprM, MeXY-OprM, MexCD-OprJ, MexEF-OprN, MexJK, MexGHI-OpmD, MexVM, MexPQ-OpmE, MecMN and TriABC are encoded in the genome of Pseudomonas aeruginosa. These are of clinical importance because of their chemical ability to remove chemical-unrelated antibiotics. Among all, resistance-nodulation division (RND) super family contains the main efflux pumps of P. aeruginosa. This efflux pump has been discussed in greater details below. The energy source is derived from its proton motive force. Resistance Nodulation Division Efflux Pump Structure There are five families of multidrug resistance efflux pumps which include the ATP-binding cassette (ABC) super family, the major facilitator super family (MFS), the multidrug and toxic-compound extrusion (MATE) family, the small multidrug resistance (SMR) family and the resistance nodulation division (RND) family (Paddock, 2006). Efflux of antibiotics from the periplasm is a critical mechanism of antibiotic resistance utilized by Gram-negative cells. P. aeruginosa is capable of actively effluxing antibiotics from the periplasmic space using efflux pumps primarily from the RND family. The RND complex is tripartite in nature, composed of an outer membrane channel protein (OMP), inner membrane RND transporter, and a membrane fusion protein (MFP) (Kumar and Schweizer, 2005). The RND transporter provides the energy for the molecular transport and is often referred to as the RND pump protein (Misra and Bavro, 2009). The OMP interacts with the RND protein in the periplasm producing a chann el capable of transporting antibiotics into the extracellular space. The MFP is believed to stabilize the interactions between the RND transporter and the OMP (Misra and Bavro, 2009). All three of these components are essential for efflux function. The RND transporters are comprised of a homotrimer folded into a ?-helical transmembrane domain, with a large, soluble periplasmic domain. The top of the bacteria have semi-permeable membranes which may limit the passage of some types of antibiotics into the cell (Avrain, et.al. 2013). Multidrug resistance efflux pumps allow the bacterium to pump antimicrobials out of the cell. Porins maintain osmotic pressure by allowing the entrance/exit of hydrophilic small molecules but do not permit the passage of larger molecules. Enzymes can modify the antibiotic so that it is no longer recognized by the target, or modify them so that they are no longer functional. This is particularly prevalent with antibiotics that alter the ribosome or interfere with ribosome binding to inhibit protein synthesis. Inhibition of mRNA synthesis occurs by binding to DNA dependent RNA polymerase inhibiting initiation (Avrain, et.al. 2013). The mechanism of antibiotic resistance is shown in figure 3. Fig3: Different mechanisms of antimicrobial resistance in Gram-negative bacteria (adapted from Fluit, et.al. 2001). In the figure, A represents mRNA and B represents tRNA. When exposed to antibiotics, MexAB-OprM and MexXY-OprM remain inducible but the rest of the systems when expressed in resistant strains may immensely contribute to biocide or antibiotics resistance. Antimicrobial components are released by the RND systems and these include first line anti-pseudomonal drugs such as beta-lactams and beta-lactamase inhibitors (Poole, 2011). Furthermore, alteration or loss of the outer membrane porin protein OprD is yet another common mechanism of resistant to carbapenems(Wang, et. al. 2010). Since P. aeruginosa infections are usually treated by the use of fluoroquinolone (Ciprofloxacin), its high level resistance is as a result of mutations in the DNA gyrase and topoisomerase IV enzymes, which target these antibiotics. Outbreak of P. aeruginosa An outbreak can be defined as two or more sterile site isolate of the same species, with the same antibiogram, from different babies within the space of two weeks. A Pseudomonas aeruginosa infection outbreak on neonatal intensive care units reflects a degree of breakdown in infection prevention measures. Poor hand hygiene, low nurse: patient ratio, inadequate spacing between cots, overcrowding, environmental colonization (especially of water systems), inadequate cleaning of common use equipment, injudicious use of antibiotics, particularly broad spectrum and prolonged courses and delaying the introduction of material breast milk, all contribute to the emergence of outbreaks. It has been reported that infection from P. aeruginosa usually occurs 48hrs after birth, which affects two to three per thousand babies in the UK (Walker, et.al. 2013). The occurrence of the infection is even higher in those born prematurely or with surgical conditions (Durojaiye, et.al. 2011). Microbiological analysis In previous studies, (Walker, et.al. 2013) carried out the following microbiological investigations. Dismantling of Taps Taps and flow strengtheners from relevant hospital were dismantled, categorized into components, swabs and water samples were also taken. Samples for microbiological assessment were placed in 10 ml of maximum recovery diluents together with 10 sterile glass beads (3 mm diameter, VWR International, Lutterworth, UK). The surface of each component was scraped with a sterile plastic loop (Sterilin, Newport, UK) and the suspension was then vortex-mixed (10 s) to remove biofilm and to suspend the micro-organisms. Each sample was then spirally plated (Don Whitley, Shipley, UK) on to plate count agar (Oxoid, Basingstoke, UK) and Pseudomonas selective agar (PCN, Oxoid, UK), for determination of aerobic colony count (ACC) and P. aeruginosa count respectively. This was then incubated at 30Â °C on (Plate Count Agar) or at 37Â °C (PCN) for 48 h. It was found out that complex flow straightener had significantly higher P.aeruginosa counts (P